Jews
From Encyclopædia
The Jews are a people who trace their descent from the biblical Israelites and who are united by the religion called
Judaism. They are not a
race; Jewish identity is a mixture of ethnic, national, and religious elements. An individual may become part of the Jewish people by
conversion to
Judaism; but a born Jew who rejects
Judaism or adopts another religion does not entirely lose his or her Jewish identity.The word Jew is derived from the kingdom of Judah, which included 2 of the 12 Israelite tribes. The name Israel referred to the people as a whole and especially to the northern kingdom of 10 tribes. Today it is used as a collective name for all Jewry and since 1948 for the Jewish state. (Citizens of the state of ISRAEL are called Israelis; not all of them are Jews.) In the
Bible, Hebrew is used by foreign peoples as a name for the Israelites; today it is applied only to the
Hebrew language.BIBLICAL PERIODThe origin of the Jews is recounted in the Hebrew
Bible (called the "Old Testament" by Christians). Despite legendary and miraculous elements in its early narratives, most scholars believe that the biblical account is based on historic realities. According to the Book of GENESIS God ordered the patriarch ABRAHAM to leave his home in
Mesopotamia and travel to a new land, which he promised to Abraham's descendants as a perpetual
inheritance. Although the historicity of Abraham, his son
Isaac, and his grandson JACOB is uncertain, the Israelite tribes certainly came to CANAAN (later
Palestine) from
Mesopotamia. Later they, or some of them, settled in
Egypt, where they were reduced to
slavery; they finally fled to freedom under the leadership of an extraordinary man named MOSES, probably about 1200 BC. After a period of
desert wandering, the tribes invaded Canaan at different points, and over a lengthy period of time they gained
Control over parts of the country. (It is uncertain if there is any connection between the Hebrews and the Habiru mentioned in 14th-century BC Egyptian documents found at Tell el-AMARNA.)Formation of a National KingdomFor a century or more the tribes, loosely united and sometimes feuding among themselves, were hard pressed by Canaanite forces based in fortified strongholds and by marauders from outside. At critical moments tribal chieftains (traditionally called judges) rose to
lead the people in battle. But when the PHILISTINES threatened the very existence of the Israelites, the tribes formed a kingdom under the rule (1020-1000 BC) of SAUL, of the tribe of
Benjamin. Saul died fighting the Philistines, and was succeeded by DAVID of the tribe of Judah.David crushed the Philistine power and established a modest empire. He conquered the fortress
city of JERUSALEM, which up to that time had been controlled by a Canaanite tribe, and made it his capital. His son SOLOMON assumed the trappings of a potentate and erected the
temple in Jerusalem, which became the
Central sanctuary of the distinctive monotheistic Israelite religion and ultimately the spiritual center of
world Jewry.Division, Conquest, and ExileThe national union effected by David was shaky. The economically and culturally advanced tribes of the north resented the rule of kings from pastoral Judah, and after Solomon's death the kingdom was divided (see ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF; JUDAH, KINGDOM OF). The larger and richer northern kingdom was known as Israel; Judah, with
Benjamin, remained loyal to the family of David. Israel experienced many dynastic changes and palace
revolutions. Both Israel and Judah, located between the empires of
Egypt and Assyria, were caught in the struggle between the two great powers. Assyria was the dominant empire during the period of the divided kingdom. When Israel, with Egyptian encouragement, tried to throw off Assyrian rule, it was destroyed and a large
number of its inhabitants were deported (722 BC). Judah managed to outlive the Assyrian Empire (destroyed c.610), but the Chaldean (Neo-Babylonian) Empire that replaced it also insisted on
Control of Judah. When a new revolt broke out under Egyptian influence, the Chaldeans under NEBUCHADNEZZAR II destroyed Jerusalem and burned the
temple (587 or 586 BC); the royalty, nobility, and skilled craftsmen were deported to Babylonia (see BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY).Loss of state and
temple, however, did not
lead to the disappearance of the Judeans, as it did in the northern?kingdom. The peasantry that remained on the land, the
refugees in
Egypt, and the exiles in Babylonia retained a strong faith in their God and the hope of ultimate restoration. This was largely due to the influence of the great PROPHETS. Their warnings of doom had been fulfilled; therefore, the hopeful message they began to preach was believed. The universal prophetic
teaching assured Jews that they could still worship their God on alien
soil and without a
temple. Henceforth the Jewish people and religion could take root in the dispersion (see DIASPORA) as well as in the homeland.Return to PalestineCYRUS THE GREAT of Persia conquered Babylonia in 536 BC. Subsequently he permitted the exiles to return to Judah and rebuild the
temple. (Many chose, however, to remain in
Mesopotamia, where the Jewish community existed without interruption for more than 2,500 years until the virtual elimination of Jewish presence in
Iraq after
world War II.) Leadership of the reviving Judean center was provided largely by returning exiles--notably Nehemiah, an important official of the Persian court, and Ezra, a learned
priest (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF). They rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and consolidated spiritual life by a public ceremony of
allegiance to the TORAH (Law of Moses) and by stringent rules against mixed
marriage. In the following centuries leadership was provided mainly by
priests, who claimed descent from Moses' brother
Aaron; the high
priest usually represented the people in dealings with the foreign powers that successively ruled the land.HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODSThe available information about the Persian period is meager. ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered
Palestine in 322; his successors, the Macedonian rulers of
Egypt (the Ptolemies) and
Syria (the SELEUCIDS) vied for
Control of this strategically important area; eventually the Syrians won. Hellenistic influences penetrated Jewish life deeply, but when the Seleucid king ANTIOCHUS IV tried to impose the worship of Greek gods upon the Jews, a rebellion ensued (168 BC).The MaccabeesThe popular revolt was led by the MACCABEES, a provincial priestly family (also called Hasmoneans). By 165 they recaptured the
temple, which had been converted into a pagan shrine, and rededicated it to the God of Israel. Hostilities with
Syria continued; but Simon, the last of the Maccabean brothers, consolidated his power and was formally recognized in 131 BC as ruler and high
priest. His successors took the title of king and for about a century ruled an independent commonwealth. Dynastic quarrels, however, gave the Roman general
Pompey the Great an excuse to intervene and make himself master of the country in 63 BC.The HerodiansIn subsequent decades a family of Idumaean adventurers (see
HEROD dynasty) ingratiated themselves with the successive Roman dictators; with Roman help, Herod the Great made himself ruler of Judea, eventually (37 BC) with the title of king. Able but ruthless, he was hated by the people, although he rebuilt the
temple with great magnificence. The Romans allowed Herod's sons less authority and in 6 BC put the country formally under the
Control of their own officials, known as procurators.New spiritual forces emerged during the Maccabean and Herodian periods. The leadership of hereditary
priests was contested by laymen distinguished for their learning and piety, who won the respect and support of the people. The priestly conservatives came to be known as
Sadducees, the more progressive lay party as the
Pharisees. The latter came to dominate the SANHEDRIN, which was the highest religious and legal authority of the
nation.Burdened by excessive taxation and outraged by acts of brutality, the Judeans became more and more restive under Roman rule, all the more because they were confident that God would ultimately vindicate them. Revolutionary groups such as the ZEALOTS emerged calling for armed revolt. The
Sadducees were inclined to collaborate with the Romans; the
Pharisees advocated passive resistance but sought to avoid open war.THE ERA?OF REVOLTS AND THE
Mishnah AND TALMUDThe Great RevoltsIn AD 66 the moderates could no longer
Control the desperate populace, and rebellion against Roman tyranny broke out. After bitter fighting the Romans captured Jerusalem and burned the
temple in 70; at MASADA the Zealots held out until 73, when most of the 1,000 surviving defenders killed themselves to defy capture by the Romans. As a result of the revolt thousands of Jews were sold into
slavery and thus were scattered widely in the Roman
world. The last vestiges of national autonomy were obliterated.The Pharisaic leaders, shortly thereafter given the title of RABBI (Hebrew, "my teacher"), rallied the people for a new undertaking--the
Reconstruction of religious and social life. Using the institution of the SYNAGOGUE as a center of worship and
education, they adapted religious practice to new conditions. Their
assembly, the Sanhedrin, was reconvened at Jabneh, and its head was recognized by the Romans and given the title of patriarch; the Diaspora Jews accepted his authority and that of the Sanhedrin in matters of Jewish law. The leaders of the Jabneh period included JOHANAN BEN ZAKKAI, GAMALIEL OF JABNEH, and AKIBA BEN
Joseph.
