Europe
From Encyclopædia
Europe, including the European portion of
Russia, ranks sixth in size among the continents; only
Australia is smaller. Unlike the other continents, Europe does not constitute a distinct and separate body of land but is part of the same landmass as
Asia. Europe and
Asia are treated as separate continents for historical rather then geographical reasons.Water bounds Europe on the north (
Barents Sea), west (
Atlantic Ocean), and south (MEDITERRANEAN SEA). The eastern land boundary is traditionally defined by a line following the URAL MOUNTAINS, southeast to the CASPIAN SEA, then across to the BLACK SEA through the
Caucasus Mountains, and cutting through the
Bosporus, Sea of MARMARA, and the
Dardanelles. Actually, Europe is a large peninsula of the Eurasian landmass.Peninsulas, bays, islands, and fjords give the southern, western, and northern areas of Europe very irregular coastlines. Consequently the coastline is unusually long for the total area and is estimated at 80,500 km (50,000 mi), longer than that of
Africa. In
Norway alone the north-south distance is about 1,770 km (1,100 mi), but the coastline, with its numerous fjords and around 150,000 islands, is nearly 20,125 km (12,500 mi) long.
Great Britain, Ireland, and Iceland are the major islands of Europe. The many smaller groups include the ORKNEYS, SHETLANDS, FAEROES, and the CHANNEL ISLANDS. All these islands, except Iceland and the Faeroes, are on the European continental shelf.Europe is complex and diverse in physical, economic, historical, political, and social makeup. The Alpine mountain system is the most outstanding physical feature; it dominates the south
Central portion of the continent and is the source of many major European rivers.Historically, Europe has held an importance in the
world that far exceeded its relative size and population. Many
world social movements, economic systems, and political ideas have begun in Europe. In the 20th century, however, the continent suffered several setbacks. At the end of
world War II the individual countries of Europe were greatly weakened economically, militarily, and politically. Moreover, during the COLD WAR era, the continent was divided between the countries in the Soviet bloc and those aligned with the
United States. The latter received massive economic aid through the
Marshall Plan, and many of them entered the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO; established 1949). Another factor that weakened European
world-power status after
world War II was the loss of colonial territories by the British, French, Dutch, Belgians, and later, the Portuguese.The concept of economic union was implemented to offset the disadvantages of loss of resources and political and economic power by the individual European
nations. The EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (Common Market) was formed in
Western Europe in 1958. The goal was to pool resources, production, and labor into one large market by abolishing all customs barriers, and in general to promote European unity. The elimination of trade barriers has proceeded gradually over a period of decades. The EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (EC)--established in 1967--has provided the EEC
nations with common political institutions, such as the European Parliament, which meets in
Strasbourg, France, and the powerful European Commission, headquartered in Brussels. The eventual aim of the EC is the political unification of its member countries.Somewhat comparable institutions--the
Warsaw TREATY ORGANIZATION and the COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE (Comecon) were established in
Eastern Europe after
world War II by the USSR, but these were abolished when the Soviet satellite system broke up in 1989-90.The disappearance of the Eastern European Communist regimes, the reunification of Germany, and the breakup of the USSR dramatically altered the European political picture in the early 1990s. The
iron CURTAIN that had divided East from West since the 1940s suddenly vanished, and where Communism had been supreme, one country after another began turning toward a free-market economy. At the same time, the dissolution of Yugoslavia was followed by bitter and destructive warfare between rival ethnic groups in that area.LAND AND RESOURCESGeology and LandformsEurope can be divided into two major areas--western peninsular Europe and eastern continental Europe--each characterized by its differing landforms. The western and southern portions have a complex pattern of mountains, valleys,
plateaus, and lowlands. In contrast,
Eastern Europe, including
Russia, consists largely of a stable geologic platform with limited amounts of local relief. The northern third of the continent was much altered by continental glaciation during the PLEISTOCENE EPOCH (from about 2,000,000 to 10,000 years ago); the massive ice sheets of the Ice Age left the area only 10,000-12,000 years ago. The mountains of
Scotland and Scandinavia were rounded by ice scouring, and glacial debris was deposited in old valleys. Glacial disruption of drainage left much poorly drained land in the north of Europe, and melting ice filled many lakes. The deep fjords of
Norway were formed by glacial action eroding old river valleys. The high mountains in the south, such as the ALPS, PYRENEES, and Caucasus, bore glaciers that deepened the valleys and sharpened the peaks.The highest elevations in Europe are found in the
Caucasus Mountains (Mount ELBRUS, 5,633 m/18,481 ft) and the Alps (Mont BLANC, 4,807 m/15,771 ft). The Pyrenees rise to a high point of 3,404 m (11,168 ft); the
Jotunheimen in Scandinavia reaches an elevation of 2,472 m (8,110 ft), and BEN NEVIS in
Scotland (1,343 m/4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Many of Europe's coastal regions are at, or only slightly above, sea level. The lowest point of the continent, the surface of the Caspian Sea, is 28 m (92 ft) below sea level. Denmark's highest point is below 175 m (570 ft), and this is typical of the elevations of the large glaciated plain of
Central Europe.
Western Europe is fortunate in having considerable areas of lowland plains located between its numerous
Highlands as well as the glaciated plains of the northern and
Central regions of the continent.The four major physiographic divisions that constitute Europe are: the Precambrian resistant rocks of the Northwest
Highlands; the varied Hercynian
Highlands of
Central Europe; the rugged Alpine system of southern Europe (the Pyrenees and Caucasus are of similar geologic age and landform character); and the recent sediments due to glacial or riverine
deposition in the European Lowlands.The Northwest
Highlands of Scandinavia and Finland have a subdued mountain topography. This landscape was formed over millions of years by repeated uplifting and erosion, with the more recent leveling and rounding of landforms by continental glaciation. The geologically younger
Highlands formed by the Hercynian
orogeny consist of the high
plateau of the
Iberian Peninsula (the Meseta), the Bohemian
Highlands of the
Czech Republic, the MASSIF
Central and
Vosges mountains of France, and the mountains and
plateaus of
Central and southern Germany. The Alpine system is a series of geologically young mountains with sharp peaks and deep, narrow valleys. In a?dition to the Alps themselves, this system includes the CARPATHIANS, Balkan Mountains, Transylvanian Alps,
Dinaric Alps, Pindus Mountains,
Apennines, and the SIERRA NEVADA of southern Spain. The
Central lowlands, which have a level to gently undulating relief, begin in southeast England and northern France and stretch to the east across Germany and Poland, finally widening to include most of
Eastern Europe.ClimateEurope has four dominant types of climate: maritime in the west, continental in the east and north, Mediterranean in the south, and mountain in the
Highlands. The maritime climate has moderate temperatures in both summer and winter. The temperatures at
La Coruna, in northwestern Spain,
average 18 deg C (64 deg F) in July and 10 deg C (50 deg F) in January. This area also has a relatively long growing-season, except in its northern reaches in the British Isles and
Norway. Precipitation of 510-1,015 mm (20-40 in) is distributed evenly throughout the year, although the weather is subject to frequent changes. The winters in northwestern Europe are moderated by the warming effect of the North Atlantic Drift, which is a continuation of the GULF STREAM.The continental climate is characterized by extreme differences between winter and summer temperatures. Temperatures in
Moscow average -12 deg C (10 deg F) in January and 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July. A precipitation maximum occurs in summer with storms caused by
convection of air that has been heated over the land. The growing season is short, and annual precipitation
averages about 635 mm (25 in).The regions on the Mediterranean coast have dry, hot summers (the
average July temperature is about 22 deg C/72 deg F) and cool to mild, rainy winters (the
average January temperature is about 8 deg C/46 deg F). Rainfall
averages from less than 760 mm (30 in) in the lowlands to over 1,015 mm (40 in) in the
Highlands.
Highland areas, notably in the Alps and Caucasus, have a large range of climatic conditions depending upon their height and orientation in relation to the prevailing winds. Generally, temperatures range from -4 deg C (25 deg F) in January to 16 deg C (60 deg F) in July. Rainfall
averages from 510 mm (20 in) in the hills to more than 2,030 mm (80 in) in the mountains.
