Cross
From Encyclopædia
The cross is among the oldest and most universal symbols. In preliterate societies it often represented a
conjunction of dualities. The horizontal arm was associated with the terrestrial, worldly, feminine, temporal, destructive, and negative, passive, and death, while the vertical arm connoted the celestial, spiritual, masculine, eternal, creative, positive, active, and life. Often symbolic of the four astrological elements of earth, water, fire, and air, a cross was also perceived as the cosmic axis from which radiated the spatial dimensions of height, length, width, and breadth, as well as the directions of north, east, south, and west.The ankh (
Crux ansata) was an ancient Egyptian T-shaped cross surmounted with a loop. It symbolized the creative energies of the male and female and the essence of life. The simple T-shaped cross is named for the Greek letter tau. it is often referred to as the Old Testament cross because Moses supposedly placed a brazen serpent on a T cross (Num. 21:6-9), and according to legend, the Israelites on
Passover eve marked their doors with blood-drawn tau crosses to identify themselves as Yahweh's followers. Another name for the T cross is the
Crux commissa.In ancient Asian, European, and pre-Columbian American
civilizations the left-directed swastika, or cruz gammata, appears to have been symbolic of solar power and movement. Hindus see the swastika as a sign of the resigned spirit, whereas Buddhists consider it an emblem of the Buddha's mind. The German Nazis adopted a right-directed swastika for their party logo because they believed it to be an ancient Nordic symbol.The erect pole and crossbar used to crucify
Jesus Christ became the principal symbol of
Christianity. A cross stood for both the actual Crucifixion and the concept of the Christian church. More than 50 variants were to develop, but the most important are the Greek cross, with its equilateral arms, and the Latin cross, with a vertical arm traversed near the top by a shorter horizontal arm. The Greek cross derives its name from its frequent use in the Greek and other Eastern Orthodox churches; the Latin cross was favored by the Western, or Roman Catholic, church.Other major shapes include the diagonal, or x-shaped, cross on which
saint Andrew is said to have been crucified, and the cross paty (or patee), in which the arms widen at the extremities. A variant of the cross paty is the
Maltese cross, has eight points. The Chi-Rho is a cross formed by joining the first two letters of the Greek word for "Christ." The Celtic or Iona cross, developed in early medieval Ireland and
Scotland, is distinguished by a circle surrounding the point of crossing. Two graduated crossbars indicate the Lorraine cross associated with archbishops and patriarchs, whereas the Papal cross has three graduated crossbars. A commonly used Eastern Orthodox variant of the cross of Lorraine has an additional crossbar diagonally placed near the base.The placement of the cross is often symbolic. Crosses surmounting orbs or spheres refer to the global triumph of
Christianity. A cross erected on the site of a pagan
temple indicated the victory of
Christianity, and
territory conquered by Christians would be claimed initially by planting a cross in the ground.The cross was not widely depicted before the 4th century AD, when
Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Earlier, when Christians were often persecuted, the cross was frequently disguised as an
anchor, or some other mundane object. Second-century Christians, however, had already begun to make the sign of the cross as a gesture of identification, blessing, and warding off of evil. In the Roman church the sign of the cross was made from left to right and in Eastern Orthodox churches from right to left.A crucifix is a cross bearing a painted or sculptured image of Christ. Crucifixes first appeared in the 5th century, and from the 9th century on medieval artists increasingly aimed at a realistic portrayal of Christ's suffering. The
Renaissance created a fashion for a more ideally conceived imagery that dramatically returned to pathos under the emotional taste of the baroque period. During the Reformation, Protestants generally repudiated the use of representational religious imagery; the crucifix therefore became associated with Roman Catholicism.When the art of
heraldry developed in medieval
Europe, various types of Christian crosses were employed as symbols, or charges, in the designing of coats-of-arms. A cross with equal arms and a diagonal cross, or saltire, were the most traditional heraldic forms. Many of the insignias for medieval and
Renaissance chivalric orders were crosses: the
Maltese cross, for example, was the heraldic symbol of the
knights of Malta (the Hospitalers). The
flags of Switzerland, Greece, and the Scandinavian countries display various crosses. The British Union
jack was designed to unify the diagonal crosses of
saint Patrick (Ireland) and
saint Andrew (
Scotland) with the rectilinear cross of
saint George (England). A
saint Andrew's cross dominated the American Confederate
flag, and it was subsequently incorporated into the state
flags of some former Confederacy members.During the 19th and 20th centuries many decorations awarded for military distinction were crosses. The German
iron Cross, the French Croix de Guerre (War Cross), the English Victoria Cross, and the American Distinguished Service Crosses of the
army,
navy, and
air force are among the most significant medals that have been awarded for battle bravery. (See also
medals and decorations.)Robert J. LoescherBibliography: Benson, George W., The Cross, Its History and Symbolism (1974; repr. 1976); [[Campbell, Joseph|
Joseph Campbell]], The Mythic Image (1974; repr. 1981); Cirlot, J.E., A
dictionary of Symbols (1962; repr. 1981); Guenon, Rene, The Symbolism of the Cross (1975); Hall, James,
dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art (1979).
