Bible
From Encyclopædia
The word Bible is derived from the Greek biblia, meaning "books," and refers to the sacred writings of
Judaism and
Christianity. The Bible consists of two parts. The first part, called the Old Testament by Christians, consists of the sacred writings of the Jewish people and was written originally in Hebrew, except for some portions in Aramaic. The second part, called the New Testament, was composed in Greek and records the story of Jesus and the beginnings of
Christianity. Translated in whole or in part into more than 1,500
languages, the Bible is the most widely distributed book in the
world. Its influence on history and culture, including
literature and the other arts, is incalculable.THE OLD TESTAMENTMajor Themes and CharacteristicsThe Hebrew Bible, written over a period of more than 500 years, consists of many types of
literature and reflects varying points of view. It is essentially religious, but, unlike most ancient religious books, the Old Testament is characterized by a strong sense of history; even laws and exhortations are woven into the narratives.The themes are the uniqueness and glory of GOD (Yahweh), the COVENANTS he made with Israel, the Law, God's
Control of history and Israel's special destiny, God's
revelation through the PROPHETS, the nature of humanity, corporate and individual sin and its remedy, and the true worship of God.The Hebrews believed that their religion was founded on covenants that God offered them and that they had accepted. Yahweh had agreed to make them his specially chosen people and to protect them, but only if they obeyed his Law. Covenants were made with
Noah, which embraced all humankind, and with ABRAHAM and his descendants; but the most important covenant was revealed to MOSES. Later, after the division of the
Jews into two kingdoms--JUDAH and ISRAEL--the people of Judah believed that a special covenant had also been made with King DAVID and his royal descendants.Yahweh was different from all other deities. Israel was forbidden to worship any other god, and the
mosaic religion perhaps implied that no other existed, although this was not specifically emphasized until the time of the exile during the Babylonian Captivity (587-37 BC). Other gods personified natural forces or tribes and
nations, but Yahweh was supreme over everything. Because he controlled history, he could use Assyria or Babylonia to punish a rebellious Israel. Plentiful crops depended on his will alone and not on the magical rites by which the Baals of Canaan were worshiped. The concept of the Book of LEVITICUS was that the Hebrews were to be a holy people, separated from all defilement.Many laws in the Pentateuch, or TORAH, the first five books, were not different from those of surrounding
nations. However, some unique commandments were given, without specific rewards and
punishments; most important were the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which have a high ethical content. The TORAH (Law) was a complete religious and
civil law for the whole
nation. It prescribed
sacrifices and festivals similar to those of other
nations, but the emphasis was on morality. Yahweh was a God of justice. All sin and injustice was an offense against him; and repentance could bring forgiveness.In the Book of JOSHUA, Yahweh is a God of war who commands the slaughter of the Canaanites, but the Hebrew religion gradually outgrew such a concept, as can be seen in the books of JEREMIAH and JONAH. The prophets saw history as an interaction between the living God and his people, and its outcome depended on their obedience. Israel was destined to be a
light to the
nations, but it always had a special place in God's purpose and love, and the Hebrews always struggled with the two concepts of God's impartial justice and his love toward Israel. Late in the biblical period, writers of
apocalyptic literature, unlike the earlier prophets, despaired of the normal forces of history and believed that God would put an end to the present age, bringing in a miraculous reign of righteousness.These themes were not systematized into a
theology but can be discerned from the
literature as a whole, which expresses the hopes,
fears, laments, thanksgivings, and even the doubts of the Hebrews. Thus the Book of JOB criticizes the popular, facile doctrine of reward and
punishment, and the Book of ECCLESIASTES often approaches
skepticism.The CanonThe canon, or officially accepted list of books in the Hebrew Bible, consists of 24 books according to Jewish reckoning and is divided into three parts: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. The Law (Torah), often called the Pentateuch, comprises five books, GENESIS through DEUTERONOMY. The Prophets (Nevi im) are divided into three parts: the earlier prophets (Joshua, JUDGES, 1 and 2 SAMUEL, and 1 and 2 KINGS); the later prophets (ISAIAH, Jeremiah, and EZEKIEL); and twelve books called the Minor Prophets because of their brevity. The 11 Writings (Ketuvim) include three poetic books (PSALMS, PROVERBS, and Job); the five scrolls (
song OF SOLOMON, RUTH, LAMENTATIONS, Ecclesiastes, and ESTHER); an apocalyptic work, DANIEL; and EZRA-NEHEMIAH and 1 and 2 CHRONICLES.Christian Bibles arrange the books differently. The Law, or Pentateuch, comes first,?then all the historical books. These are followed by the poetical, or wisdom, books and finally the prophetic books. Thus Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther appear in the second group and Daniel and Lamentations in the fourth.The
Jews never ceased writing religious books. Several books composed in Hebrew or Greek after 300 BC are part of the SEPTUAGINT, or Old Greek version, and were regarded as Scripture by many Christians. Roman Catholics and the Orthodox include these books, called APOCRYPHA or deuterocanonical books, in the Bible. Protestants omit them or print them as an appendix to the Bible.Divisions of the Old TestamentThe following discussion uses the Christian classification of books.Pentateuch. Genesis recounts the creation of the universe and the first human beings, the traditions of the DELUGE, and the stories of the patriarchs
Down to the sojourn of the Hebrews in
Egypt and the deaths of JACOB and
Joseph. EXODUS tells how Moses led the people from
Egypt and received the covenant and Law on Mount
Sinai. Leviticus is largely a legal code;
numberS continues the story of migration toward the Promised Land. Deuteronomy partly repeats the narrative, recording other laws, and concludes with the death of Moses. It teaches a strict doctrine of corporate reward and
punishment.The Pentateuch is based on four principal sources. The oldest, J, was perhaps written in Judah, the southern kingdom, about 950 BC. Between 900 and 750, another version from Israel, the northern kingdom, was woven in; this is called
Ephraim (E). In the 7th century BC, Deuteronomy, or most of it (D), was compiled. About 550 BC, during the exile, the final edition of the Torah added a priestly source (P), some parts of which are very old.Historical Books. Joshua tells of a thorough conquest of Canaan, but Judges contains traditions of the Hebrew tribes in the period before the monarchy that reveal the conquest as partial. The books of Samuel are about the founding of the monarchy under SAUL and David and contain a magnificent early source for the life of David, probably written about 961-22 BC. All the above books have been extensively edited by writers who shared the
theology of the D source.Ezra and Nehemiah were composed after the exile, when these two leaders restored
Judaism in
Palestine, and Nehemiah's own memoirs make up much of the latter book. The two Books of Chronicles cover Hebrew history from Ezra's priestly point of view but contain some valuable earlier traditions. Ruth is the story of a foreign woman who became loyal to Israel and was the ancestor of David. Esther is a tale of a Jewish
queen of Persia who saved her people from persecution.Poetical, or Wisdom, Books. Job contains some of the finest
poetry in the Bible. Its themes are the problems of suffering and of man's standing before God. The Psalms were essentially composed for
temple worship, although some may be pieces of individual devotion. Many are ascribed to David, but some come from an earlier period. Proverbs comprises several collections of ancient wisdom. Parts of Ecclesiastes are skeptical, but other sections express conventional wisdom. The
song of Solomon is a collection of love poems.The Prophets. The great prophets of the 8th century BC were AMOS, HOSEA, Isaiah, and MICAH. They proclaimed God's holiness and his judgment on the idol worship and moral abuses of the Hebrew kingdoms, and called the people back to loyalty to the covenant. Jeremiah, the greatest prophet of the 7th century BC, was unique in recording his inner spiritual struggles and in promising a new covenant. Like Isaiah, he opposed military
alliances with foreign
nations and resistance to the Babylonian invasion. ZEPHANIAH and perhaps HABAKKUK belong to the same century. NAHUM gloats over the destruction (612 BC) of
Nineveh. The most significant prophets during the period of Babylonian exile were the Ezekiel and the unknown authors of chapters 40-55 and 56-66 of Isaiah, who encouraged the return of the
Jews to the Holy Land and promised a glorious natio?al life. Lamentations reflects the miseries of the exile.The remaining prophets followed the exile. OBADIAH is strongly nationalistic; JONAH expresses God's concern for Gentiles as well as
Jews. HAGGAI and ZECHARIAH 1-8 reflect the rebuilding of a small
temple in Jerusalem. JOEL, Zachariah 9-14, and MALACHI combine the themes of judgment and restoration and have apocalyptic elements. Daniel is an apocalypse from the Maccabean period (c.164 BC) and promises God's help to the
Jews in time of persecution.
